Pioneer Tree Species and Biological Forest Succession

Pioneer plant species are the first predictable seeders, adaptable to many conditions and the most vigorous flora to colonize disturbed or damaged ecosystems. These plants readily acclimate to bare soil, have the ability to grow and regenerate and respond vigorously on even the poorest soil sites and environmental conditions. Pioneer tree species are also known for their ability to readily seed or root sprout on bare soil and withstand the rigors of low moisture availability, full sunlight and high temperatures along with poorly available site nutrients. These are the plants, including trees, that you first see after a disturbance or fire in newly forming ecotones during field succession. These first tree colonizers become the initial forest tree component of a new forest. North American Pioneers Common pioneer tree species in North America: red cedar, alder, black locust, most pines and larches, yellow poplar, aspen, and many others. Many are valuable and are managed as even-aged stands, many are not desirable as a crop tree and removed for a more desired species. The Process of Forest Succession Biological succession and often-called ecological succession  is the process whereby disturbed existing forests regenerate or where fallow untended lands return to a forested condition. Primary succession is the ecological term where organisms are occupying a site for the first time (old fields, roadbeds, agricultural lands). Secondary succession is where organisms that were part of an earlier successional stage before a disturbance return (forest fire, logging, insect damage). The first plants to grow naturally in a burned or cleared area are usually weeds, shrubs or inferior scrubby trees. These plant species are often controlled or totally removed as defined in a prescribed forest management plan to prepare the area for higher quality tree regeneration. The Classification of Trees following the Pioneers It is important to know which trees will first attempt to cover the site. It is also important to know usually the most dominant tree species in the region that will eventually take over in the process of biological succession. Those trees that move on to occupy and become the main tree species are known as the climax forest community. The regions where these communities of tree species are dominant become the climax forest. Here are the major climax forest regions in North America: The Northern Boreal Coniferous Forest. This forest region is associated with the northern zone of North America, mostly in Canada.The Northern Hardwood Forest. This forest region is associated with the hardwood forests of the Northeastern United States and Eastern Canada.The Central Broadleaf Forest. This forest region is associated with the central broadleaf forests of the Central United States.The Southern Hardwood/Pine Forest. This forest region is associated with the Southern United States along the lower Atlantic through the Gulf coastal areas.The Rock Mountain Coniferous Forest. This forest region is associated with the mountain range from Mexico to Canada.The Pacific Coast Forest. This forest region is with the coniferous forest that hugs the Pacific coast of both the United States and Canada.

International Environmental Standards - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 14 Words: 4174 Downloads: 6 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Research paper Did you like this example? Abstract Transnational Corporations have become the order of the day when it comes to investment driven growth for the developing world. Countries encourage these corporations to lead the charge when it comes to development of technology, boosting National Income, increasing living standards and increasing export capabilities. The host nations are both incapable and unwilling to enforce stricter environmental regulations in the fear of losing out on investments, and the developed countries are hesitant towards regulating such entities because of their strong political lobbies. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "International Environmental Standards" essay for you Create order The international instruments resulting from such quandary are also mere eye-wash and essentially rendered ineffective because of the lack of domestic legislation. Because of these failures, the TNCs operate in a sphere of legal vacuum with nothing to restrain them from damaging the local environment and bio-diversity. This paper highlights the deficiencies in the operation of such international instruments, the lack of political will in nations in enforcing better means of regulation and thereby attempts at providing some basic indicators that should be the driving force behind the functioning of TNCs. No one can deny the economic benefit resultant from the inflow of foreign investment or the efforts of Corporate Social Responsibility but these do not compensate for the extent of environmental damage caused by TNCs. The regulation and safety of the living environment is a commitment for entire humanity and the entrepreneurial units are by no means exempt from such obligation. Introduction Transnational Corporation, (TNC) also called Multinational Corporation or Multinational Enterprise, is defined by the UN Norms on the Responsibilities of Transnational Corporations and other Business Enterprises as: An economic entity operating in more than one country or a cluster of economic entities operating in two or more countries whatever their legal form, whether in their home country or country of activity, and whether taken individually or collectively.  [1] In the past quarter of a century, an era of rapid economic globalization, there has been a remarkable growth in both the number of transnational corporations (TNCs) and the quantity of foreign direct investment (FDI).  [2]  TNCs have grown in number from 7,000 TNC parent firms in 1970 to over 65,000 in 2002. Together, these global firms make up one-tenth of world GDP and one-third of world exports.  [3]  The growth in the number, size, and influence of TNCs has been a matter of international concern, particularly to developing countries, for over twenty years. The expansion of TNCs after the Second World War resulted from a number of factors, including spiraling labor costs in developed countries, the increasing importance of economies of scale, improved transportation and communication systems, and rising worldwide consumer demand for new products.  [4]  Ethical issues arising from TNC activities include bribery and corruption, employment and personnel issues, marketing practices, impacts on the economy and development patterns of host countries, environmental and cultural impacts, and political relations with both host and home country governments.  [5] It is also frequently argued that TNCs have grown beyond the control of national governments and operate in a legal and moral vacuum where individualism has free reign.  [6]  Despite the long-held concerns about ethical and other aspects of TNC activity, promotion of FDI has been a global political trend.  [7]  Policy initiatives at the international level concerning TNCs focus on developing guidelines to facilitate FDI,  [8]  with the principal issues being the development of standards for fair and equitable treatment, national treatment, and most favored nation treatment.  [9] Environmental matters are one exception to this trend. Since the Trail Smelter case came in picture,  [10]  there appears to be a broad consensus regarding the need and desirability to develop standards to guide and direct TNC behavior. However, considerable uncertainty exists about how to apply environmental standards to TNCs in this new era of free trade, liberalization of national economies, and promotion of FDI. TNCs are key players in terms of development activity, and they operate in the free space between ineffective national laws and non-existent or unenforceable international laws.  [11]  This Article discusses methods to ensure that TNCs meet environmental protection goals in the emergin g international climate of structural adjustment, free trade, and enhanced conditions for FDI. In particular, it focuses on the idea that some consistent or uniform standards should be developed to guide TNC activities wherever they occur. Operation Of TNCs The types of activities towards which FDI is directed have changed considerably over the past forty years. In the 1950s, the initial growth in FDI occurred in the primary sector, with investment primarily in renewable resources such as agriculture, fisheries and forests and in non-renewables such as minerals, oil, and gas. Subsequently, the manufacturing sector became the most prominent sector for FDI outflows and accounted for forty-five percent of outward FDI during the 1970s.  [12]  The most rapid growth in FDI activity in recent years took place in the services sector, in which world outflow of FDI expanded from thirty-one percent in 1970 to fifty percent in 1990.  [13]  The United Nations predicts that FDI in coming years will increasingly focus in the services and technology-intensive manufacturing sectors. The vast majority of TNCs have parent corporations that are based in developed countries. The G5 countries account for one-half of the total number of parent TN Cs and more than two-thirds of the global stock of FDI. Only eight percent of parent TNCs are based in developing countries, and these account for only five percent of the global stock of FDI.  [14]  Not surprisingly, the proportion of TNC affiliates located in developing countries is much higher, comprising forty-one percent in 1991.  [15] The flow of FDI to developing countries comprised only one-quarter of total FDI inflows in 1991, but it has increased steadily over the past ten years. A large proportion of this inflow goes to a small number of developing countries. In 1992, $26 billion out of the $40 billion directed to the developing world went to just ten countries, primarily in east, south, and south-east Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean.  [16]  These figures again suggest that by focusing regulatory efforts on a relatively small number of developing countries, coverage of a substantial proportion of the activity undertaken by TNCs and their affiliates in the developing world would be achieved.  [17] For all these reasons, concerns about environmental protection in relation to manufacturing and primary production are increasing within developing countries and the central and eastern European regions in the near future.  [18] Environmental Impact of TNC Activities Environmental performance is defined in terms of emissions of hazardous substances into air, land and water.  [19]  Environmental performance is directly affected by regulatory, financial and organizational variables. The United States EPA reports three categories of emissions: direct emissions into the air, land or water; transfers to publicly-owned treatment works (i.e., sewage); and transfers off-site for storage, recycling, or other purposes. TNCs operate in a wide range of pollution-intensive and hazardous industries that have products or processes that may harm the environment or negatively impact human health, such as mining, petroleum, and agro-business. The general standard of environmental performance of TNCs is therefore a matter of significant international concern.  [20]  TNCs possess flexibility, mobility, and leverage which local companies do not enjoy; tend to maintain corporate secrecy about the hazards associated with particular products and processes; and obtain the benefit of legal uncertainties concerning the liability of parent TNCs for their affiliates activities.  [21] The two TNC activities most commonly identified as raising environmental concerns are the export of hazardous products (such as pesticides, pharmaceuticals, toxic chemicals, and hazardous wastes) and the export of hazardous processes or technologies.  [22]  TNCs export hazardous processes by establishing highly-polluting industries outside home countries, thus creating potential problems with pollution control, disposal of hazardous wastes, workers health and safety, and the risk of major accidents.  [23]  The accidents at Seveso, Italy; Bhopal, India; and Basel, Switzerland demonstrate the serious consequences that arise when TNCs inadequately manage chemical manufacturing plants. Primary industry activities also impact biodiversity and can carry serious consequences for indigenous peoples.  [24]  Such concerns are particularly pronounced where tropical rain forests have been cleared. New areas of concern about the environmental impacts of TNC behavior are also emerging since the 1990s. One of the most significant is the acquisition of intellectual property rights to products derived from plants or animals found in developing countries.  [25]  The broader charge is that TNCs are raiding and appropriating the biodiversity of developing nations.  [26] Environmental destruction leaves local populations with two basic options: (a) to leave the degraded environment for a more habitable place and become environmental refugees,  [27]  or environmentally displaced people; or (b) to remain in the degraded environment and risk increased morbidity and mortality through exposure to pollution and depleted, degraded, or contaminated food and water sources.  [28]  Neither of the above options is ideal as both leave communities and individuals in worse conditions than before the environmental destruction occurred. Further more, international law is currently organized in such a manner as to exclude such victims from international aid.  [29]  Poorer nations turn to TNCs to encourage international investment in hopes of improving the local economy. In turn, TNCs are attracted to the opportunity to lower production costs through lenient environmental standards and cheap labor.  [30] Despite their enormous influence and their significant role in the degradation and destruction of the environment which subsequently harms human populations, TNCs are not yet signatories to binding international instruments.  [31]  Virtually unrestrained by international instruments and domestic laws, TNCs are safe from liability for environmental destruction and resultant human rights violations. Globalization has thus created powerful non-state actors that may violate environmental law in ways that were not contemplated during the development of the modern environmental jurisprudence.  [32] Attempts at Environmental Regulation of TNCs Both the international community and individual states have attempted to regulate the activities of TNCs.  [33]  International efforts to establish an environmental code of practice for TNCs have proven illusory at best. Moreover, most instruments which have come under the consideration of the international community have taken the form of non-binding, soft-law guidelines.  [34] The United Nations Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations: The Code of Conduct for Transnational Corporations emerged from the 1974 movement to establish a New International Economic Order.  [35]  In 1993, after authoring several code drafts,  [36]  the United Nations abandoned efforts to establish a TNC code when it became evident that compromise was nearly impossible. The most recent provision of the U.N. Code of Conduct (Code of Conduct) relating to environmental protection comes from the 1988 draft and reads as follows: Transnational corporations shall carry out their activities in accordance with national laws, regulations, established administrative practices and policies relating to the preservation of the environment of the countries in which they operate and with due regard to relevant international standards. Transnational corporations should, in performing their activities, take steps to protect the environment and where damaged to rehabilitate it and should make efforts to develop and apply adequate technologies for this purpose.  [37]  The Code of Conduct fails to specify what steps should be taken, or what will be done if they are not taken. Additionally, the Code of Conduct fails to define damaged and rehabilitate. Any effective international regulatory regime must provide specific mandatory guidelines and standards for the environmental practices of TNCs. The U.N. Code of Conduct fails in this regard, leaving the creation of relevant international standards to future international law developments.  [38] The OECD Guidelines for Multina tional Enterprises: In 1976, the member countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), as an annex to a declaration on international investment, established the Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises.  [39]  This soft-law instrument lacks the scope, enforceability, and substantive provisions needed to create an effective international regime of environmental regulation. The impotency of the said Guidelines can be ascertained from their applicability to TNCs only within their territories. Such broad proclamations provide little guidance to TNCs and fail to establish an effective environmental regulatory regime. Article XX of GATT: The issue of environment protection was not a major issue when the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade was drawn up in 1947. Not a word was mentioned in GATT itself about environment.  [40]  The principle purpose of GATT is to oblige members to use the same rules to regulate trade and to ensure in particular that there was no discrimination in trade.  [41]  Under Article XX, GATT provides for trade restrictions and discrimination in order to protect human, animal, plant health and safety. It is worth noting that the word environment is nowhere expressly mentioned in Article XX. Nevertheless, these exemptions give the members ample latitude to control trade to protect the environment,  [42]  although some authors argue that these are intended to cover measures designed either to protect public health diseases or to protect animal or plant life for commercial reasons.  [43]  The measures to protect human, animal, plant life or health have to be the least trade restrictive  [44]  ones among the measures available to such countries.  [45]  The term necessary means such a measure that entails minimum degree of inconsistency with other GATT provisions.  [46]  These provisions, although appear to providing adequate teeth and power to the host nation in imposing its envi ronmental concerns, yet they are seldom an effective means due to other WTO obligations and trade interests.  [47] Agenda 21 of the United Nations Conference on Environment in Development: In June 1992, representatives from most of the worlds nations and several hundred nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) gathered in Rio de Janeiro for the United Nations Conference on Environment in Development (UNCED or the Earth Summit). One product of their labors was a voluminous soft-law document entitled Agenda 21.  [48]  This document, formally adopted by most participating nations, establishes a comprehensive plan for global development.  [49]  Numerous clauses address the practices of TNCs and their role in achieving sustainable development. Throughout the document, TNCs are encouraged to introduce policies demonstrating the commitmentto adopt standards of operation equivalent to or not less stringent than those existing in the country of origin, and to adopt and report on the implementation of codes of conduct promoting the best environmental practice.  [50]  While Agenda 21 suffers from the same problems as the instruments discussed above, its recognition of the regulatory method of applying home country standards is significant.  [51]  Despite its important developments, Agenda 21 ultimately fails to establish an effective environmental regulatory regime. Its most prevalent defect is its non-binding, aspirational nature.  [52]  Unless such standards can be enforced, either internationally or domestically, they are unlikely to have much effect. Agenda 21 also suffers from a definitional problem. It is not clear from the terms of Agenda 21 whether country of origin refers to a TNCs country of incorporation, the country or countries wherein a majority of its shareholders reside, or both. International Environmental Regulations: The foregoing problems have led some scholars to call for a comprehensive international regulatory scheme, which, they argue, would level the competitive playing field.  [53]  First, the terms and conditions of multinational corporate activity must promote the cause of global economic and social justice. Second, there must be global standards of process safety for transnational hazardous and nonhazardous business activity. Third, the activity must satisfy the highest standards of environmental protection. Fourth, the activity must observe the highest standards of human rights. Fifth, dilution of technology to a lesser level while operating in developing countries should be banned, even if the importing nation so desires. Sixth, restrictions against foreign capital investment in developing economies should be set, regulated, and reviewed by an impartial committee consisting of the representatives from both developed and developing countries, but excluding the parties in question so that the solutions agreed upon are free from the psychological biases of interested parties. Last, an internat ional dispute resolution mechanism should be established where preference is accorded to arbitration before appealing the decision to a court of binding jurisdiction.  [54]  Although, such international regulation serves theoretical commonsense, the barriers impeding its successful implementation are plenty and profound.  [55]  First, developed countries, whose nationals control a large majority of the worlds TNCs, are unlikely to advance support for such a code because it would run contrary to their short-term economic interests. Further, such regulations might lead to transfers in environmental technology from developed to developing countries, an occurrence seen as undesirable by many developed nations.  [56]  Second, developing nations are unlikely to support such a vigorous regulatory scheme. Many developing nations see environmental quality as a luxury which they are willing to forgo in favor of further development and increased wealth.  [57] Need for Uniform Environmental Standards for TNCs Current international environmental law and international human rights law developed without regard for each other and are not sufficient in this global economy. Moreover, international environmental law generally focuses on trans-border environmental harm and does not regulate domestic environmental issues.  [58]  Citizens must rely on national law for redress and protection, which is often not an effective avenue.  [59]  Additionally, international human rights law is neither linked to a healthy environment nor to international environmental law and TNCs are not held accountable for human rights violations that stem from their direct environmental destruction.  [60] A wide range of regulatory measures might readily be described as environmental standards.  [61]  There are essentially two ways to force TNCs to apply uniform standards. The first involves international negotiation or harmonization of standards so as to produce a level playing field for TNCs, while a lso enhancing existing levels of environmental protection worldwide. The second method is to directly regulate TNCs to ensure that they apply uniform standards wherever they happen to operate. These rules determine the source of the particular standards that apply to a TNC in a given situation.  [62] Direct Regulations: Direct regulations encompass a variety of command and control regulations, including enabling, environmental quality and resource conservation regulations. Enabling regulations set out the general objectives and the interactions among the legislative and executive branches of government, while providing for the general funding of the environmental programs outlined in the legislation.  [63]  These regulations determine the methods for controlling pollution and set numerical limitations on permissible levels of pollution.  [64] Market Incentives: Both industry and government pursue the incorporation of market incentives into environmental legislation. Th is approach potentially could save industry billion of dollars a year.  [65]  Numerous commentators proposed many different general market-based solutions to pollution problems. These plans include pollution charges such as fees, taxes, subsidies and deposit-refund systems. Self Regulation: Recent surveys have suggested that TNCs are seriously addressing their past deficiencies by undertaking extensive environmental management programs that extend across all their operations.  [66]  In the case of industry organizations, these measures tend to concentrate on the broader standards of conduct that may be expected of corporations, including TNCs, rather than focusing on ambient or discharge standards of a relatively precise or quantifiable nature. Examples include the International Chamber of Commerces Environmental Guidelines for World Business and Business Charter for Sustainable Development, the U.S. and Canadian Chemical Manufacturers Associations Responsible Care Progra m, the European Council of Chemical Manufacturers Federations Principles and Guidelines for the Safe Transfer of Technology.  [67]  Individual TNCs are also considering the idea of internal standardization of environmental practices, perhaps because they perceive that environmental, health, and safety regulations will become increasingly harmonized in the future anyway.  [68]  The overriding difficulty with all of these possible internal standards, as with industry codes and guidelines, is their voluntary and non-binding character. Even more so than soft law instruments executed by nations, which at least reflect a consensus among some nations that may be reflected in domestic measures from time to time, industry and internal standards offer no mechanisms for ensuring compliance apart from those which exist in any event, such as adverse publicity.  [69] International Agreements: These agreements include conventions on trans-boundary pollution (e.g., 1979 Conventions on Long-Range Trans-boundary Air Pollution), conventions on resources shared between two or more states (e.g., UNEPs Regional Seas Convention), and conventions on the use of resources of the global commons (e.g., Law of the Sea, Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depletion).  [70]  In addition, local national regulations can affect industry policies. For example, the European Community has not yet successfully defined the relationships among European Community, national, regional and local environmental laws. Considerable support has been expressed in recent years for the development of international environmental standards. However, if TNCs were to face uniform ambient standards, local variables such as the level of industrial activity, its spatial dispersion, and topographical and climate conditions would preclude harmonization of environmental control costs and competitive positions.  [71]  Environmentalists worry that uniform standards lead inevitably to a lowest common denomina tor outcome which could threaten environmental gains in some countries, particularly if new free trade rules deem higher standards to be illegal barriers to trade.  [72]  A refinement of the concept of uniform international standards is the concept of minimum international environmental standards.  [73]  Under this approach, countries would remain free to adopt more stringent environmental standards if warranted by their particular circumstances. The more stringent standards could include measures designed to promote pollution prevention. Minimum standards, rather than being identical, could operate on a principle of mutual recognition based upon the equivalence of requirements in national laws.  [74] It seems clear that TNCs view the development of international environmental standards as a less desirable process than the standardization or harmonization of national environmental standards.  [75]  Thus despite the emerging interest in the concept of minimum interna tional environmental standards, and the precedents for international regulation where trans-boundary or global commons issues are involved, the reality is that the prescription of detailed process standards for environmental, health, and safety matters through legally binding international agreements does not currently appear to have widespread governmental or industry support.  [76] In the absence of an international approach to the development of environmental standards, it remains open to states to pursue their own approaches with respect to the operations of TNCs who fall within their jurisdiction. Thus, instead of allowing TNCs to operate entirely by reference to the law of the host country, it may be possible to develop domestic rules which determine that similar or uniform standards will apply to TNCs irrespective of whether they are operating in a host or home country.  [77]  However, this approach has been criticized for some of the reasons also advanced against th e idea of international uniform standards. In particular, it is suggested that it may lead to inappropriate technology transfer, or to decisions by TNCs to pass over investments in a particular developing country because of the environmental costs involved, even though the proposed activity might be of considerable economic benefit to the country concerned.  [78]  A practical difficulty with the home country rule is that it would require environmental authorities in the relevant host country to understand and administer differing standards for various TNC facilities, according to their country of origin. This could prove quite impractical. The second option with respect to domestic regulation of TNCs is for the home country to give extraterritorial effect to its environmental regulations in relation to the operations of its own TNCs abroad.  [79]  Proposals of this kind have been put forward and range from a Foreign Environmental Practices Act, which would extend all rele vant domestic standards and regulations to TNC operations abroad,  [80]  to a more modest proposal that home governments could make regulations for their companies that they insist are followed in other countries of operation. This approach has been condemned on the grounds that it intrudes excessively into the internal affairs of sovereign states and, particularly in its operation in developing countries, amounts to a new form of cultural imperialism.  [81] There are also some obvious and substantial practical difficulties with the administration and enforcement of domestic standards in a foreign jurisdiction. Export and import controls are another domestic means of regulating TNC behavior.  [82]  Another option is to impose import restrictions on products that have been produced through inferior environmental protection measures, in order to protect domestic manufacturers and to address global concerns such as tropical deforestation.  [83] Conclusion Both international and domestic measures have failed to adequately regulate the environmental practices of transnational corporations. While there is need to strengthen and develop existing methods of environmental regulation of TNCs, formal recognition in a hard-law treaty of the international human right to a healthy environment can help to prevent and correct environmental disasters and compensate injured individuals. The right of individual petition, amenability of TNCs to proceedings, effective investigatory powers, skilled environmental judges and experts, and the ability of the International Court for the Environment to award damages and injunctive relief are all characteristics essential to the creation of an effective international enforcement mechanism.  [84] While a few concrete international measures have been developed, more general or comprehensive measures seem unlikely due to TNC opposition and a lack of strong interest in this approach at present on the part o f national governments. International environmental standards seem most likely to emerge at first instance in a regional setting, but where these are provided for in trade related agreements, their adequacy and efficacy will be uncertain. Soft law and self-regulatory mechanisms, while reflecting a greater awareness on the part of governments and TNCs of the need for higher levels of environmental performance, offer no guarantees of compliance.  [85] There is an international trend towards recognizing the right to a healthy environment and towards increased corporate accountability. However, this movement will take time, as the global economy is currently structured around economic efficiency, and adjustments must be made to incorporate human, economic, and environmental interests.  [86]

Blood Brothers Free Essays

Blood Brothers is a musical by Willy Russell which was written and first performed in 1981. The musical is about twin brothers, separated at birth, with one kept in a low-class family and the other adopted into a wealthy family. The characters of Mrs Johnston and Mrs Lyons, the mothers, are total opposites. We will write a custom essay sample on Blood Brothers or any similar topic only for you Order Now Mrs Johnston is a struggling, single mother of seven, with another two on the way, whereas Mrs Lyons is a privileged, yet childless, married woman. One of the main themes of the musical is superstition for example; the song ‘shoes upon the table’ is all about superstition. Another big theme of the musical is fate. Eddie and Mickey meet almost as if they are meant to, and instantly take a liking to one another. When they lose contact, they meet again, proving they are supposed to be a pair. Also the narrator plays the role of the devil and he sings the song lyrics ‘you know the devil’s got your number’ and that is implying that no matter what, fate is going to happen wherever the characters are living or whatever they are doing. The last theme to the musical is social class, the whole way through the musical we are being reminded about how different these characters are to each other. Willy Russell shows this by their clothes, accent or speech. The opening scene started with a funeral we saw some men dressed in black suits putting two bodies into coffins (Mickey and Eddie) however the gauze curtain was still not raised. This seemed like the past and present of the story, as this first scene was the inevitable end. I think that was effective because it immediately gets your attention and you become eager to know what’s going on. Mickey and Eddie lay side by side both dead. The narrator then tells us the story of what happened. This is cross-cutting as it shows a different time period then returns to the current one. When we are first introduced to Mrs Johnston, she is a single mother ever since her husband left her for a younger woman. She is not dressed in the best of clothes as she does not have much money and her job is cleaning Mrs. Lyons house. Mrs. Johnston is a low–class Liverpudlian, who is extremely hard working. Mrs Johnston is shown as a woman in her thirties but a very worn out woman because of the stress of work and her children. Mrs Johnston stutters at times because of her being under pressure, like when Mrs Lyons is persuading her to give away one of the twins. And by Mrs. Johnston stuttering it shows she is unsure and pressured into something she doesn’t want to do. Willy Russell presents Mrs Johnston to the audience as a decent woman, who gives lots of love to her children, but she can’t give them more than that because she hasn’t got a well-paid job and she is working as Mrs Lyons’ house maid, which takes a lot of her time, which could be spent with her children instead. That is why Mickey and his siblings are left to learn about life themselves on the streets. That makes the audience sympathise with the poor people. She shows that to the audience after she learns she is going to have twins by saying: â€Å"With one more baby we could have managed. But not with two. The Welfare have already been on to me. They say I’m incapable of controllin’ the kids I’ve already got. They say I should put some of them into care† so because she loves her children and wants to keep them she makes the sacrifice of giving Eddie to Mrs. Lyons with hope that he will have a better life then what she could give him. Even though she regrets giving Eddie to Mrs. Lyons her superstitions stops her from telling anyone about what she has done out of the fear of killing her own children. Mrs Lyons contrasts really strongly against Mrs Johnston. At first, Mrs Lyons is shown as a bright person in her thirties, unlike the stressed Mrs Johnston who is the same age. Mrs Lyons is an upper middle-class woman. She is dressed very smartly as she has the money to have nice clothes. Mrs. Lyons is a very patronising woman, who is forceful and pressurising. Mrs Lyons uses negative views about extra children so that Mrs Johnston will have to give away one of the twins to her. She doesn’t do this in an aggressive way, but in a dangerously sweet way. So that Mrs. Johnston doesn’t feel like she can cope any more. Willy Russell also shows Mrs. Lyons to be self-centred as Mrs Lyons is willing to take a child away from its mother, so that she can save herself. Mrs Lyons is a very sly and devious woman, as she uses superstition against Mrs Johnston, so that she can keep one of the twins. Her facial expressions are very stern and persuading and her body language comes across very confident as she knows that’s she is manipulating Mrs. Johnston. The Narrator is also a very important part to the musical; he acts as a shadow of the other characters. Firstly he was like the host. He constantly kept appearing and kept the performance flowing. It seemed as if he had the remote to slow things down and also to speed things up when he wanted. He wore a smart black suit which gave him a high profile. His voice was used quite well because he adjusted it to make it loud and directive as a narrator should have but it also had a bit of power in it. During the performance he popped up here and there just to clarify things for the audience. The Narrator is there as a reminder of Mrs Johnston and Mrs Lyons’ agreement. The other characters don’t acknowledge him which shows he is of a ghostly nature. The Narrator raises suspicion and builds up tension between the characters. The Narrator also has no emotions and he comes across as a very cold person which makes the audience feel as if he is like a devil type figure. Although he is a devil like figure, he is a neutral character because he doesn’t choose sides and we don’t know anything about him, other than he knows the fate of each character. The Narrator is trying to tell Mrs Johnston and Mrs Lyons that their pact won’t work, because the truth will be known. He uses repetition and rhyme, so that his lines are more catchy and memorable. The character of Mickey was portrayed really well as the person playing this role was showing great child like movements such as pulling his jumper over his knees and also by the way he was speaking. The way Mickey was speaking came across very child like as he was doing a lot of rhyming and simple sentences. Mickey also plays childhood games, like mounted Police and Indians, and runs around with a toy gun. When Mickey was playing his cowboy like games he pretended to have a horse between his legs and he galloped around the stage like a child would do. As Mickey got older he showed he was acting more mature and he understood that life wasn’t going to be easy for him and he needed to work for things unlike Eddie who had everything sorted out for him. When Mickey has got out of prison he is really unsteady and has to take pills to calm himself even though he doesn’t need the pills, he just thinks he does. But when Mickey takes the pills, Willy Russell uses stage directions to give the characters emotion with their physical movement, so when Mickey takes the pills the lights come up on Mickey. We see him go to take his pill, we see him struggle not to take it’’ Russell does this to get the audience to feel sad and sympathetic for Mickey. So in this scene the lighting is really dim, which reflects on Mickey’s thought processes which are slow and aged. You can see from this scene that prison has aged Mickey beyond doubt. Mickey used movement and his voice to really portray Mickey’s vulnerability. Mickey’s movements were slow and it seemed like every step he took was agony. His speech was slow, and his voice was extremely quiet. He walked hunched over, as if trying to protect himself from an unknown fear. Eddie is the complete opposite to Mickey as he was raised in a wealthy family and he shows this in his body language because he stands up straight, speaks politely and is never rude. When Eddie first meets Mickey, Mickey speaks in common English and uses slang around Eddie and he finds it amazing because he has never heard any one talk like that. Eddie seems to have grown up very fast because at the age of seven, he is already very polite and well spoken. His parents have influenced him because he is like a miniature adult. Throughout the whole of the musical Mrs. Johnston sings about Marilyn Monroe, Marilyn Monroe is a very clever icon to use throughout the musical. This is because using her as a reference sets us in the correct time period. She is also a good symbol, because she has links to many of the themes in the play including death, addiction and beauty. All the scenes were set in the same location; and the set design remained the same for the whole performance, even when the backdrop changed however, the insides of houses, occasionally descended from the ceiling to show the insides of each home. One the right side of the stage was a wall which had graffiti on it and that represented the lower class type of area that Mickey and Mrs. Johnston would live in. Class difference is displayed very clearly in Blood Brothers, in particular the difference in wealth between the two families. Eddie’s parents ensure that he has a comfortable upbringing and is able to study at university and receive a qualification, resulting in a highly paid job. This is completely different to Mickey. He comes from a poor family which meant that he was stuck in a dead end job in a factory. â€Å"I bleeding hated it, standing there all day never doing anything apart from putting cardboard boxes together. † This reflects Mickey’s frustration and highlights the lack of opportunities open to him, which adds to the dramatic effect of the musical because it prepares us for trouble in the future. A good example of dramatic irony in the musical is when Eddie and Mickey decide that as they are such good friends they will become blood brothers. Hey, we were born on the same day. That means we can be blood brothers. † The audience knows that they were actually brothers so that creates dramatic irony. I really enjoyed the musical Blood Brothers and it helped me understand the class difference which is displayed very clearly in the difference in wealth between the two families. I also liked the way the actors never came out of role when bringing in props e. g. chairs, table s and carpets. I also loved how the lighting would make a very serious point feel more real and intense. How to cite Blood Brothers, Papers Blood Brothers Free Essays Blood Brothers is set in Liverpool, and was written in 1983 by Willy Russell. The musical is set in Liverpool. The 1980’s started with probably Liverpool’s lowest point of unemployment and because of that riots broke out in Toxteth along with other UK cities. We will write a custom essay sample on Blood Brothers or any similar topic only for you Order Now The area saw huge job losses and the population halved as people left Liverpool to seek work elsewhere. The UK’s view of Liverpool also suffered badly through the way they were shown in TV programs. The setting and date are important to the story because in the early 1980’s unemployment rates in Liverpool were amongst the highest in the UK; an average of 12,000 people each year were leaving the city, because of the massive recession. In this time it was very hard for the uneducated people (working class people) to find a job. Russell decided to write Blood Brothers because he wanted to express his emotions towards the divide between the middle and the working class. Russell believed that the class you belong to determines – to a large amount – your chances in life. In Blood Brothers, these differences are extreme, and Willy Russell describes them very dramatically. The position in the class society predicts the future of the unborn yet child and it draws the path of the life journey. Having an education is an advantage for those who can afford it; again something out of reach for those stuck in the working class society. Unfortunately, the working class during 1980’s had no opportunities and this led to criminal rate to increase. I can see the huge impact on that particular community because of the lack of proper education and strong family values. The two brothers, who were separated at birth, are in two opposite classes, Mickey in working class and Eddie in middle class. Russell uses juxtaposition to show, how two bothers from the same mother, can be so different just by growing up in a different class. The dialogue shows that Mickey is stereotypically working class. For example; ‘I’m pissed off†¦ Yeh. Yeh, I know loads of words like that. Y’know, like the ‘F’ word. By shortening ‘yes’ to ‘yeh’ it shows he is talking in the colloquial Liverpudlian dialect. The use of swear words show that he is from a working class background, because a child which is brought up in a middle class society wouldn’t use that type of language. However, on the other hand dialogue shows that Edward is stereotypically middle class; ‘Pissed off. You say smashing things don’t you? Do you know anymore words like that? ’ Eddie is confused about what Mickey is saying; he has never come across swear words. By saying ‘Smashing’ this shows that Eddie is astonished by the words Mickey uses. This shows that his from a middle class background because, parents in the middle class tend to avoid their children, to have contact with swear words. This emphasises the difference between the boys. When Mickey and Eddie grow up Mickey turns out to be uneducated and jobless, in contrast, Eddie turns out to be a highly paid councillor. This suggests that the class you belong to determines your chances in life. Mickey and Edward are treated differently just because of the class they are in. For example, when the police treat them differently; ‘And he was about to commit a serious crime, Love†¦.. You don’t wanna end up in court again, do y’? ’ This shows that working class people are treated differently to middle class people. His speech shows he is stricter to working class people. On the other hand he approaches the middle class differently. ‘An’ er, as I say, it was more of a prank, really, Mr Lyons. I’d just dock his pocket money if I was you. ’ This shows the policeman isn’t as serious to Mr Lyons about the prank as he was towards Mrs Johnstone. By saying ‘An and er’ shows he is nervous. ‘I’d just dock his pocket money’ shows he is not so serious about the situation. Russell showed the audience, that classes are treated differently by society just by the class you are in, because they suspect the working class always cause trouble. This links to the message saying that, being middle class is the key to success. Russell explores class and opportunities in his song ‘Easy Terms. ’ The song links to historical context of the play, because in the early 1980’s nemployment rates were amongst the highest, in Liverpool. ‘The price I’ll have to pay†¦ Who’s at the door? ’ This shows Mrs Johnstone as a working class woman worrying about the problems she may encounter. The literal meaning of the song ‘Easy Terms’ is about Mrs Johnstone giving up Edward. ‘Only for a time, I must not learn to call you mine. ’ and ‘When I got me job, I though I could be able to pay. ’ The first quote shows that Mrs Johnstone is talking about, giving up Edward and that they were on easy terms with each other, before she gave him away. In the second quote she is talking about recession and that the money she makes is not enough. Also by saying ‘me job’ shows she is talking in the colloquial dialect. The deeper meaning of the song ‘Easy Terms’ is that, life was easier before the recession. ‘Living on the never never. ’ This shows that Mrs Johnstone is not certain about what will happen and that she is living on the uncertainty. I believe that the song suggests that class and opportunities determine your chances in life. The narrator’s role in Blood Brothers is to describe and introduce characters. Also the narrator is omniscient. The narrator’s black clothes are important, because his clothes show seriousness. The black clothes also foreshadow death. In the final scene he is dressed as if he was attending a funeral. The effects of the black clothes, tells us that something bad is going to happen. We get an impression from the narrator that something bad is going to happen. ‘The devil’s got your number†¦ Y’know he’s right behind y’. ’ This suggests that the narrator is the devil as he is all-knowing so he is the mother’s conscience. The narrator’s dialogue helps the audience to think about class and opportunity, about the opportunity to have and to dream for a better life. ‘And do we blame superstition for what come to pass? Or could it be what we, the English, have come to known as class? ’ The narrator is highlighting the central message of the play. This may suggest that the narrator represents Willy Russell. The rhyming couplets emphasise the central message of the musical. Parallel scenes show two separate scenes which occur at the same time on stage. ‘Edward: then marry me. Linda: Didn’t Mickey tell y’? We got married†¦. Mickey: fifty notes? ’ This shows that several things are happening on stage. It also shows the class difference between Edward, Mickey and Linda. It also shows the way Linda, speaks for example ‘y’’ shows that she is from a working class background, because Edward wouldn’t say that because, he was brought up differently. Russell used parallel scenes instead of splitting scenes because it contrasts and juxtaposes the characters; Russell has done this to help the audience see the differences between the characters. The play is written in a cyclical structure; it begins in the same way as it ends. The effect of the cyclical structure is it foreshadows what’s going to happen. Furthermore, within the play there are cycles. For example, the song ‘Shoes upon the table’ has been repeated several times in the musical. The narrator is trying to show that something bad is going to happen upon, by showing it through a cyclical structure. Russell believed that the class you belong to- determines to a large amount, your chances in life. I think this is his central message. Russell uses several dramatic devices: juxtaposition, dramatic irony and parallel scenes. I think that the method Russell used to communicate his message to the audience was good and effective, because he used juxtaposition and parallel scenes to show how Mickey and Edwards’s lives are different. Russell’s message is still relevant in today’s society; a working class family will have to try harder to get the things a middle class family would get easier and this is not because of lack of ability but the prejudice of society. How to cite Blood Brothers, Essay examples

Research on Environmental Impacts of Tourism

Question: Discuss about the Research on Environmental Impacts of Tourism. Answer: Introduction The interaction between people and animals fascinates human beings. Wildlife tourism entails attraction at fixed tours, sites, and experiences present and associated with tourism accommodation. Tourism shape, serve and manage the consequences of business, holiday, and other travel for both the private and public sectors (Buckley, 2012). The tourism industry plays a significant role in economic growth and seeks to ensure sustainability and benefits maximization (Ballantyne, Packer, Sutherland, 2011). Tourism has both positive and negative impacts on wildlife, where the adverse effects need to get managed. This essay discusses the impacts of tourism on wildlife about the difficulties of measuring such effects and the application of the precautionary measures to their management. Wildlife tourism is environmentally friendly based on the expectation that those who visit tourist sites to see wildlife remain concerned with animal welfare conservation (Hammerschlag et al., 2012). With the proper supervision of wildlife interactions, financial contribution, tourist satisfaction, and economic growth get assured (Telfer Sharpley, 2015). However, tourism potentially has several adverse impacts on the animal populations, welfare, and behavior. These negative effects need to be understood, identified, and mitigative approaches were taken to control them. Adverse Impacts of Tourism on Wildlife Adverse impacts of tourism on wildlife range from direct injury and death, habitat alteration, and disruption activity including food provision. The approach of handling animals that cannot fit the standards established by humans creates a problem since the animals do not enjoy the atmosphere of the habitat (Murphy, 2013). The aspect of habitat changes affects animals life, and this leads to their death. The lack of animals in the tourist sites creates challenges to people and the economy since visitors cannot tour the site. To see these effects on a broader picture, different aspect with terrestrial and marine environments examples are used in this essay (Carlisle, Kunc, Jones, Tiffin, 2013). The natural behaviors of wildlife are changed by what tourists do when they feed the wild animals, and this adversely affects the future of the animals. The largest issue created by tourism on wildlife comes when the wild animals get used to staying around humans Cinner, 2007). The visitors tour the wildlife sites whereby for most of the times they spent feeding the animals. The animals suffer from this feeding since some of it is bad (Douglas Alie, 2014). The way tourists handle animals is different from the manner they get dealt with by the game park wardens, and this leaves a challenge of how to manage the animals once the tourists have left the sites (Mason, 2015). For example, in the terrestrial environments, animals are used to a programmed feeding procedure. However, during the summer holidays when tourists visit the wildlife, they give them a lot of food where some of it does not fit their digestion. Also, tourism events lead to wildlife injury or death by visitors cars. Mostly, animals at parking areas used to getting food at the tourist's vehicles will go close to the cars where they get hit (Cong et al., 2014). This is a negative impact of tourism on wildlife since the animals die and leave the sites with insufficient wildlife for tourist attraction (Mason, 2015). The death and injury of animals by tourist cars occurs only to animals living in terrestrial lands. On the other side, the car petrol and diesel polluted by the vehicles to the ground gets carried away by water to the marine zones (Shaughnessy, Nicholls, Briggs, 2008). The marine animals get affected in that they cannot breathe well and hence their death. Tourism is important and beneficial, but if not properly monitored, these side effects happen to the animals. Tourist activities not only kill wildlife accidentally but also interfere with animals habitats. Habitat interference disturbs and disrupts animals behavior, and healthy life freedom while at the site (Steven, Pickering, Castley, 2011). To accommodate and entice tourists, the wildlife set must have driving roads and walking paths, and this is dreadful for the animals life. The habitat of the animals gets changed since when cars pass by and tourists walk through the roads, the wildlife move far away to stay alone (Martin Reale, 2008). Surprisingly, failure to construct walk paths and roads, the visitors move to the animals as much as possible. This creates a dilemma. For example, the interaction of animals living in terrestrial environments with tourists poses a threat since either of them can harm and injure the other. This is a huge impact of tourism activities on wildlife. Challenge of Measuring Effects of Tourism on Wildlife On the other hand, there is a problem of measuring the entire effects of the tourism industry on wildlife. Human presence in the wildlife sites is one method of measuring the effectiveness of the industry (Carlisle, Kunc, Jones, Tiffin, 2013). However, this is not the only method since animals always have a closer interaction with people when they want to get food. To deal with this challenge, the precautionary principle is useful whose responsibility is protecting the tourists from exposure to harm where scientific studies identify a potential risk (Higham Shelton, 2011). The precautionary principle requires humans to show carefulness when staring to wildlife tourism. The policy requires visitors to drive carefully to avoid unnecessary injuries and killings on the terrestrial animals. Wildlife tourism needs a long lasting solution for sustainable conservation and development of tourism industry (Gladstone, Curley, Shokri, 2013). Working with wild animals requires taking precautionary measures to protect both the people and the animals (Spenceley, 2012). The challenge with the principle of prevention is that individuals who visit the wildlife sites in a given summer or holiday event may not be the ones to visit the same location in future (Zhong et al., 2011). The management of Al tourism has given wisdom evolution to ensure that visitors will not keep repeating a similar mistake over and over again. Conclusion In conclusion, the positive impacts of tourism on wildlife are lesser than the adverse ones. However, this does not make tourism industry less significant in other fields. Tourism leads to economic growth and profit maximization to both the government and the private sector. Another advantage of the tourism industry is the provision of education that equips tourists with skills and knowledge of maintaining wildlife welfare. Profit maximization and economic goals form the main factors behind the progress of tourism activities and industry in an economy. The fee charged to cater for entry and tour guide pays to animals and their habitat conservation. The money collected revolves between the game parks and the government of the country. Therefore, the government and the private sectors should balance the benefits and drawbacks of wildlife tourism to ensure a mutual benefit between the animals and the humans. References Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Sutherland, L. A. (2011). Visitors memories of wildlife tourism: Implications for the design of powerful interpretive experiences.Tourism Management,32(4), 770-779. Buckley, R. (2012). Sustainable Tourism: Research and reality.Annals of Tourism Research,39(2), 528-546. Carlisle, S., Kunc, M., Jones, E., Tiffin, S. (2013). Supporting innovation for tourism development through multi-stakeholder approaches: Experiences from Africa.Tourism Management,35, 59-69. Cinner, Aswani. (2007). Integration customary management into marine conservation. Biological Conservation no.140 pp. 201-216 Cong, L., Wu, B., Morrison, A. M., Shu, H., Wang, M. (2014). Analysis of wildlife tourism experiences with endangered species: An exploratory study of encounters with giant pandas in Chengdu, China.Tourism Management,40, 300-310. Douglas, L. R., Alie, K. (2014). High-value natural resources: Linking wildlife conservation to international conflict, insecurity, and development concerns.Biological Conservation,171, 270-277. Gladstone, W., Curley, B., Shokri, M. R. (2013). Environmental impacts of tourism in the Gulf and the Red Sea.Marine pollution bulletin,72(2), 375-388. Ham, S. H., Weiler, B. (2012). Interpretation as the centerpiece of sustainable wildlife tourism.Sustainable Tourism. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 35-44. Hammerschlag, N., Gallagher, A. J., Wester, J., Luo, J., Ault, J. S. (2012). Don't bite the hand that feeds: Assessing ecological impacts of provisioning ecotourism on an apex marine predator.Functional Ecology,26(3), 567-576. Higham, J. E. S., Shelton, E. J. (2011). Tourism and wildlife habituation: Reduced population fitness or cessation of impact?.Tourism Management,32(6), 1290-1298. Hughes, K. (2013). Measuring the impact of viewing wildlife: do positive intentions equate to long-term changes in conservation behavior?.Journal of Sustainable Tourism,21(1), 42-59. Martin J.G.A. Reale D. 2008: Animal temperament and human disturbance: Implications for the response of wildlife to tourism Behavioural Processes 77 pp.6672 Mason, P. (2015).Tourism impacts, planning, and management. Routledge. Murphy, P. E. (2013).Tourism: A community approach (RLE Tourism). Routledge. Newsome, D., Moore, S. A., Dowling, R. K. (2012).Natural area Tourism: Ecology, Impacts, and Management(Vol. 58). Channel View Publications. Shaughnessy, Nicholls, Briggs. (2008): Do boats affect fur seals at Montague Island, new south wales? Tourism in Marine Environments vol. Five no 1 15-27 Spenceley, A. (2012).Responsible Tourism: Critical issues for conservation and development. Routledge. Steven, R., Pickering, C., Castley, J. G. (2011). A review of the impacts of nature-based recreation on birds.Journal of environmental management,92(10), 2287-2294. Telfer, D. J., Sharpley, R. (2015).Tourism and development in the developing world. Routledge. Zhong, L., Deng, J., Song, Z., Ding, P. (2011). Research on environmental impacts of tourism in China: Progress and prospect.Journal of environmental management,92(11), 2972-2983.